Colonial Nine Universities

Founded prior to American Independence in 1776, the first universities established in America are referred to as the Colonial Nine. Christian ministry was a key factor in the founding of these institutions as their desire was to train literate, white, male clergy members (Brubacher & Rudy, 2004).


Founded 1636, Harvard College

Founded 1693, College of William and Mary


Founded 1701, Yale College

Founded 1746, College of New Jersey

Founded 1751, Philadelphia Academy

Founded 1754, King's College

Founded 1764, Rhode Island College

Founded 1766, Queen's College

Founded 1769, Dartmouth College

Morrill Land Grant Act - 1862

Senator Justin Morrill introduced two bills to the United States Congress in 1862 and 1890 for the following purpose:

without excluding other scientific and classical studies and including military tactic, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the legislatures of the States may respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life (United States Congress, 1862).

According to the National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges (1995), by providing grants in the form of federal land each state was able to "provide a broad segment of the population with a practical education that had direct relevance to their daily lives."

Refer to the following video for information concerning one beneficiary of the Morrill Acts: Iowa State University - Democracy's College

Senator Justin Smith Morrill

Department of Education - 1867

Originally created to collect information to establish effective school systems, the formerly known Office of Education's mission is "to promote student achievement and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence and ensuring equal access" (U.S. Department of Education, 2010).

Smith-Lever Act - 1914

"The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 establishes the Cooperative Extension Service and provides federal funds for cooperative extension activities. The act requires that states provide a 100% match from non-federal resources."(United States Deparment of Agriculture, 2010).

Established to inform United States citizens about current developments in agriculture, home economics, and related subjects, the Smith-Lever Act provided land-grant universities further funding with current projects such as Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program, Farm Safety, Integrated Pest Management, and Children, Youth and Families at Risk.

George Reed Act - 1929

Extending the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917, the George Reed Act increased federal support of vocational education including home economics (Goble, D.
A History of Career and Technology Education in Oklahoma

Civilian Conservation Corps - 1933

As part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal legislation, the Civilian Conservation Corps was founded to provide jobs for nearly 3 million unskilled American men.

GI Bill - 1944

Officially known as the Serviceman's Readjustment Act of 1944, the GI Bill was signed into legislation by Franklin D. Roosevelt to provide Federal Government aid for the readjustment in civilian life of returning World War II veterans. (United States Department of Veterans Affairs, 2009). According to a statement made by President Roosevelt at the signing of the bill the following benefits were bestowed upon veterans returning from World war II:

1. It gives servicemen and women the opportunity of resuming their education or technical training after discharge, or of taking a refresher or retrainer course, not only without tuition charge up to $500 per school year, but with the right to receive a monthly living allowance while pursuing their studies. 2. It makes provision for the guarantee by the Federal Government of not to exceed 50 percent of certain loans made to veterans for the purchase or construction of homes, farms, and business properties.
3. It provides for reasonable unemployment allowances payable each week up to a maximum period of one year, to those veterans who are unable to find a job.
4. It establishes improved machinery for effective job counseling for veterans and for finding jobs for returning soldiers and sailors.
5. It authorizes the construction of all necessary additional hospital facilities.
6. It strengthens the authority of the Veterans Administration to enable it to discharge its existing and added responsibilities with promptness and efficiency. (United States Department of Veterans Affairs, 2009 -
http://www.gibill.va.gov/GI_Bill_Info/history.htm)

1.1 million ex-GIs enrolled in American colleges as student enrollment increased by approximately 50% in the 1950s leaving the long-standing tradition that a college education was only for the wealthy.

FDR signs G.I. Bill into Law

Truman Commission Report - 1947

With the GI Bill in full force, veterans were going to college but the higher education system struggled with handling the increase. Truman stepped in and in the summer of 1946 came up with the Presidential Commission on Higher Education. Headed by George F. Zook and with the help of 28 other educators, the goal was to, "reexamine our system of higher education in terms of its objectives, methods and facilities; and in the light of the social role it has to play," said Truman. The Commission put out six volumes which were entitled:

Volume I: Establishing the Goals
Volume II: Equalizing and Expanding Individual Opportunity
Volume III: Organizing Higher Education
Volume IV: Staffing Higher Education
Volume V: Financing Higher Education
Volume VI: Resource Data

This also marked the first time that the federal government created a committee to examine the state of the United States education system (Kim, D & Rury, J, 2007)

Brown vs. Board of Education - 1954

Overturning the 1893 case of Plessy v. Ferguson which allowed separate but equal doctrine for black students, the 1954 ruling of Brown v. Board of Education ruled that separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. (Supreme Court of the United States, 1954). This renowned legal case opened up increasing educational opportunities for all students.

Department of Education Archives. (2010). Educational Segregation Map.

National Defense Education Act - 1958

Enacting the National Defense Education Act in response to the launch of the Soviet Union's 'Sputnik Satellite', the U.S. Congress hoped to ensure "the security of the nation through the fullest development of the mental skills of young men and women" (Science and Technology Policy Institute, 2005). The legislation featured student loan programs to increase science and mathematics careers; 'National Defense Fellowships'; and programs to increase knowledge of science and technology.

Affirmative Action - 1961

Established in Executive Order 10925, signed by President Kennedy in 1961, Affirmative Action required:

government contractors not discriminate against any employee or applicant for employment because of race, creed, color, or national origin as well as to take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin (Executive Order 10925, 1961).

Following the Civil Rights Act of 1964 it was concluded that African American children would benefit from attending integrated schools; thus began affirmative action as known today.

Blacks have a 375-year history on this continent: 245 involving slavery, 100 involving discrimination, and only 30 involving anything else.
— Historian Roger Wilkins

Manpower Development Training Act, Vocational Education Act, Higher Education Facilities Act - 1962 & 1963

The Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962 endeavored to train and retrain thousands of workers unemployed because of automation and technological change (Kreman, 1974).
The Vocational Education Act of 1963 set forth expansion and redirection of vocational education aiming to enroll a larger proportion of the baby boom generation moving through the educational system to improve the training available to them ( Oklahoma Department of Career and Technology Education, 2005).
Also known as the Morse-Green Bill, the Higher Education Facilities Act of 1963 provided funding for the expansion and upgrades of facilities to enable "many more of our young people to cope with the explosion of new knowledge and to contribute effectively in a world of intellectual, political, and economic complexity" (Johnson, L. 1963)

Civil Rights Act: Title VI - 1964

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was landmark legislation for the United States. Title VI of the act says that any agency found discriminating against anyone can lose their funding they receive from the federal government. This includes colleges and universities. This tied with Brown v. Board of Education changed the landscape of America's higher education system.

Higher Education Act - 1965

Lyndon B. Johnson signed this act into place on November 8, 1965 as a part of the Great Society agenda. Johnson wanted the legislation, "to strengthen the educational resources of our colleges and universities and to provide financial assistance for students in post secondary and higher education.” The bill strengthened institutions that had not been accredited, more funding for continuing education programs, providing more scholarships and lowering interest rates on loans for students. The bill has been amended numerous times as well after the landmark legislation in 1965.

Navajo Community College Act - 1968

In 1968 the first college was established that was controlled by Native Americans. It opened as the Navajo Community College and is now known as Dine College. Being controlled by Native Americans their educational philosophy is different then schools (with Navajo tradition involved).

Title IX - 1972

Title IX (primarily linked to athletics) simply states, "No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving federal financial assistance..." Similar to Title VI, it punished a college or university for discriminating against someone based on color or sex.

Perkins Vocational Education Act - 1984

The Perkins Vocational Act of 1984 was established to allow better access to those who need more educational help than others. Members of special populations such as those with a disability must have equal access to schooling. It also provided more funding to assist in this area as well.

Americans with Disabilities Act - 1990

Signed on July 26, 1990 the American with Disabilities Act (or ADA) provided equal access and no discrimination to those with disabilities. Title II of the bill specifically addressed education and what was required for it. Equal access needed to be provided from schools (which meant physical access) for anyone with a disability.

National Security Education Act - 1991

The goal of the National Security Education Act is, "provides aid for international education and foreign language studies by American undergraduate and graduate students, plus grants to institutions of higher education." Grants, scholarships and fellowships are offered through the act to allow U.S. students to go abroad and study other cultures.

Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) - 1996

The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1996 (FERPA) is meant to protect student education records. The three most important parts to it include parents (for students under 18) and eligible students (students who are over the age of 18) have the right to investigate any education records from their school, ask for any changes that they deem incorrect in the education records pertaining to them and receive written permission from from parents or eligible students to release any of their education records.

Amendments to HEA - 1998

In 1998 amendments were made to the Higher Education Act of 1965 that affected loans, grants, work study and other initiatives. Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs (or GEAR UP) was also established (which included Early Intervention and College Awareness Program). The big focus was to provide financial assistance for college to those who receive a secondary school diploma.

College Cost Reduction and Access Act - 2007

The College Cost Reduction and Access Act of 2007 was, "The largest investment in higher education since the GI Bill - at no new cost to taxpayers." The act wanted to increase money in scholarships while lowering loan and tuition costs for students. The five things the act wanted to accomplish was making college more reasonable so students in the middle class would consider college, increasing a Pell scholarship by $500 to reach $5200, having highly qualified teachers in every classroom, reward public servants in college and promote philanthropic participation in college retention and financing.

Two Delaware students who will benefit from the College Cost Reduction and Access Act

American Recovery and Reinvestment Act - 2009

During one of the worst economic periods in the United States history, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 was passed by Congress on February 13, 2009. The goal was to create and save jobs, jump start the American economy and make the government more accountable for their spending. One of the ways these tasks were to be achieved was through increasing the education, health care and entitlement programs funding by $224 billion. As of August 5, 2010, $89 billion in grants were awarded from the Education aspect of the Recovery Act. Some programs that were directly affected that are higher education related were the Federal Pell Grants, Federal Work Study Program and the Student Aid Administration.

President Obama signing the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act

References

Brubacher, J. and Rudy, W. (2004). Higher education in transition: A history of American colleges and universities.

Department of Education, House Education and Labor Committee. (2007). College cost reduction act of 2007 Retrieved from http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A0oG7muKba9MlpgABAdXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTE0Zm1lMTVzBHNlYwNzcgRwb3MDMgRjb2xvA2FjMgR2dGlkA1ZJUDAwMV83Mg--/SIG=12g91qvsv/EXP=1286651658/**http%3a//edlabor.house.gov/publications/061207CCRAOnePager.pdf

Education and title vi. (2010, October 10). Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/hq43e4.html

eo-10925.html

Johnson, L. (1963). Remarks Upon Signing the Higher Education Facilities Act. Retrieved from http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=26387

Kim, D. & Rury, J. (2007). The Changing Profile of College Access: The Truman Commission and Enrollment Patterns in the Postwar Era. Wiley Publishing. New York, NY.

Kreman, G. (1974). MDTA: The Origins of the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962. Retrieved from http://www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/history/mono-mdtatext.htm

Kuenzi, J, & Riddle, W. (2005, Januay 21). National security education program: background and issues. Retrieved from http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL31643.pdf

Oklahoma Department of Career and Technology Education. (2005). A Selected Chronology of the History of Vocational and Technical Education in United States in General. Retrieved from http://www.okcareertech.org/history/history4.htm

Perkins vocational education act. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.napcse.org/specialeducationlaw/perkinsvocational.php

Schlam , L. (2010, October 10). Higher education act of 1965. Retrieved from http://www.novelguide.com/a/discover/mac_02/mac_02_00152.html

Science and Technology Institute. (2005). The National Defense Education Act of 1958: Selected Outcomes. Retrieved from https://www.ida.org/stpi/pages/D3306-FINAL.pdf

Supreme Court of the United States. (1954). Brown v. Board of Education of Topkea, 347 U.S.http://www.nationalcenter.org/brown.html Retrieved from

The president's commission higher education for democracy, 1947. (2010, October 10). Retrieved from http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/courses/eol474/sp98/truman.html

The recovery act . (2010, October 8). Retrieved from http://www.recovery.gov/About/Pages/The_Act.aspx

Title ix and education. (1996, September 11). Retrieved from http://library.findlaw.com/1996/Jan/11/126069.html

U.S. Department of Education, (1990). Nondiscrimination on the basis of disability in state and local government services (28 C.F.R. Part 35). Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/policy/rights/reg/ocr/28cfr35.pdf

U.S. Department of Education, (1998). One hundred and fifth congress of the united states of america Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/policy/highered/leg/hea98/HR6.pdf

U.S. Department of Education, (2010). Ed recovery plan (june 2010) Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/leg/recovery/recovery-plans-2010.pdf

United States Congress. (1862). Title 7 of the United States Code. Retrieved from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/usc.cgi?ACTION=BROWSE&title=7usc

United States Department of Agriculture. (2010). Smith-Lever Act formula fund. Retrieved from http://www.csrees.usda.gov/business/awards/formula/smithlever.html

United States Department of Education. (2010). About the Department of Education. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/mission/mission.html?src=ln

United States Department of Veterans Affairs. (2009). GI Bill History: Born of controversy – the GI Bill of Rights. Retrieved from http://www.gibill.va.gov/GI_Bill_Info/history.htm